From the 15th to the 19th centuries, Western European artists interested in depicting nature navigated cultural institutions that did not value nature as a subject.
From Leonardo da Vinci in the 15th century, to Claude Monet in the 19th, Western European artists interested in depicting nature navigated cultural institutions that did not value nature as a subject. Expectations in subject matter were established by the Catholic Church and the French Salon, which believed “good” art gave visual form to specific cultural values. Nature on its own did not fulfill these cultural values. Rather, artists were expected to depict Biblical narratives, Greek Mythology, historical events or specific people (portraits). In this environment, the depiction of nature took an interesting path navigating through these cultural forces.
1400 - 1500 Expectations in Subject Matter: Italy and the Catholic Church
In 15th century Italy, the Catholic Church was the central patron of the arts, and with this role as patron, had expectations in subject matter. Therefore, the visual arts gave representation to Catholic narratives and figures. Common figures include Adam and Eve, the Virgin Mary and Jesus Christ.
A second expectation included representations of Ancient Greek and Roman culture. With the Renaissance being a “rebirth” of ancient Greek cultural production, the Catholic Church valued the visual representation of Greek cultural figures and stories. This includes Raphael's School of Athens, located in the Papal Apartments of the Vatican.
A third expectation included portraiture. Outside of the Catholic Church, artists searching for patronage could rely on wealthy individuals desiring visual depiction. This includes Lisa Gherardini del Giocondo, a wealthy silk merchant's wife, the subject of the Mona Lisa.
These three expectations show how a “quality” work of art included a human presence. The inclusion of the human figure whether from the Bible, Ancient Greece, or a patron was a necessity in order for a painting to be considered “art”. Artists did depict nature without the human subject for personal interest, however, this approach would not lead to patronage or a respectable standing as an artist.
When a work of art included the natural world, the presence of the human figure gave it significance. In his book, Landscape and Western Art, Malcolm Andrews explains, “Landscape in this period has conventionally only a supplementary role to play, it is marginal to the main human or divine subject…it occupies a low status in a hierarchy dominated by the human presence. The heroic human or divine presence bestows dignity and significance on the natural setting; it elevates and validates it.” (Andrews, 2000)
Under these conditions, an artist could not sustain a career depicting nature alone. Therefore, artists balanced their interest in nature with the Catholic expectations of subject matter. Leonardo da Vinci exemplifies this concept, combining his interest in the natural world with commissioned works.
Leonardo’s personal sketchbooks reflect his keen observations of nature.
Leonardo’s sketchbooks not only reflect his exceptional artistic ability, but reveal his most intimate interests. From a receding landscape, down to the precise details of a flower, Leonardo gives visual evidence of his observational impulse. Unfortunately, works such as these would not be considered a valuable, high achieving work without the inclusion of the human form. Therefore, Leonardo utilized his observations from nature to innovate scenes of Catholic narratives.
This includes the Virgin of the Rocks, where Leonardo’s specific interest in rock formations took this traditional scene to new levels of depth, space and realism. The four figures, the Virgin Mary, Jesus Christ, John the Baptist and an angel, occupy a mysterious environment, inspired from Leonardo’s interest in geological science and history. (theguardian.com) This shows how Leonardo utilized his observations from nature to innovate traditional Catholic scenes.
One can observe Leonardo’s impressive achievement when comparing this scene to Medieval depictions.
This interest in geology was further explored with the Mona Lisa. The background of the painting includes diverse mountain ranges, rock formations and winding paths.
Nature and St. Jerome
A common Renaissance scene includes the depiction of St Jerome. St Jerome was a Christian priest and historian born in 340 AD. His accomplishments as a Theologian led to his sainthood by the Catholic Church, and his life story was a common subject in Renaissance art. According to Christian historical accounts, “it is said that he went into the wilderness in Syria to study the Bible and to write, giving up material comforts.” (nga.gov)
The story of St. Jerome embracing a life in the wilderness lent the opportunity for artists to depict nature. Renaissance artists inspired by this story include Giovanni Bellini, Lorenzo Lotto, and Joachim Patinir.
From the late 15th century into the 16th, the ratio of human figure to natural setting progressively shifts. When comparing three depictions from Bellini (1450), Lotto (1506) to Patinir (1515), the figure of St. Jerome slowly becomes marginalized to the diversity of the natural world. This shows a reversal, where rather than the human figure giving meaning to the natural world, the natural world becomes the focus and subject.
This interest in the natural world corresponding to the marginalization of the human figure continued with Pieter Bruegel. The Parable of the Sower is a biblical scene where a sower, “is Jesus and the seed is the word of God” (biblestudytools.com) Painted in 1557, the figure of the sower is framed by a receding landscape. The effect is a fascination with the Sowers’ environment, rather than the teachings of the biblical story.
Bruegel continued this interest in landscape with his painting, Landscape with the Flight into Egypt, completed in 1560. The deep recession of the landscape with detailed trees, mountain ranges, and clouds capture the interest of the viewer. The figures of Joseph Mary, and her infant son Jesus become marginal to this detailed, contemplative landscape.
Prior to Bruegel’s natural landscape, the same scene depicted in 1300 reflects the human emphasis. Giotto’s edition shows how nature was marginalized to the human form.
Netherlands 1600 - 1700
Throughout the 1600’s, the emergence of Protestantism under the leadership of Martin Luther significantly impacted the depiction of nature. Luther’s courageous rejection of both Papal authority and the practice of indulgences led to the rejection of religious imagery. This resulted in a liberation of artistic creation, where artists depicted their observations of nature without the pressure to include religious figures.
Martin Luther & Protestantism
On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther posted his Ninety-five Theses. These 95 statements centered around the role of Papal Authority and the Vatican Church. Luther particularly criticized the selling of “indulgences”, which he characterized as a manipulative tradition. (loc.gov)
Indulgences, which emerged in the middle ages, was a payment that, “absolved one of past sins and/or released one from purgatory after death” (pbs.org). The power of the Pope to guarantee heavenly salvation through a monetary exchange, in Luther’s view, was illegitimate and a particular malpractice of the Catholic Church.
One of Luther’s 95 statements emphasizes how this practice exploits loyal Catholic followers, “Why does not the Pope, whose wealth is today greater than the wealth of the richest Crassus, build this one basilica of St. Peter with his own money rather than with the money of the poor believers?” Luther’s rejection of Papal indulgences was supported throughout Germany, and his views spread quickly across Northern Europe.
A consequence of Luther’s beliefs was the destruction of religious imagery, or iconoclasm. While never Luther’s intention, the rejection of religious iconography stemmed from the distaste of the Pope’s opulent lifestyle. This includes the impressive architecture of St. Peters to the Pope’s elegant silk habit, which were considered excessive, unnecessary splendors. This anti-materialism eventually led to the violent rejection of Christian iconography. Any visual representation of Catholic narratives and figures were systematically destroyed. Representation from, Crucifixions, Saints, and stained glass windows fell victim to this anti- Catholic imagery.
Under this context, 17th century Dutch artists experienced a freedom of depiction. With the rejection of religious imagery, artists could depict scenes of nature without the inclusion of overtly religious subject matter. In their depictions of the natural world, the human presence included ordinary farmers and shepherds, rather than explicitly Catholic figures. This freedom of depiction led to, in some instances, the complete absence of the human body.
England 1700 - 1800- Constable, Turner
Artists in England, a Protestant nation, held the same freedom of depiction as in the Netherlands and Germany. Notable artists of this period include John Constable and Joseph Mallord Turner, who were the preeminent painters of 19th century England. Like his Dutch predecessors, John Constable continued the tradition of landscape painting with the inclusion of the local inhabitants.
Turner and Abstraction
Constable's contemporary, Joseph Mallord Turner, executed scenes of nature. However, Turner's innovative use of abstraction pushed pictorial representation to new visual realms. Turner’s use of abstraction is particularly evident with his depictions of the sea. A maritime scene from 1805, The Shipwreck compared to a similar scene painted in 1850, Snow Storm: Steam-Boat off a Harbor's Mouth, shows how abstraction brought new visual effects.
With Snow Storm: Steam-Boat off a Harbor's Mouth, Turner utilizes swirling brushstrokes to capture the power and force of the ocean. Compared to his earlier painting The Shipwreck, which feels more static.
Besides his maritime scenes, Turner depicted several landscapes. A painting titled, The Lake, Petworth: Sunset, a Stag Drinking, exemplifies the shifting interest in nature, rather than the inclusion of heroic subjects. Turner emphasizes the radiance of the sunset, rather than aggrandizing Catholic iconography. This emphasis on the atmosphere would be an inspiration for the Impressionists, who admired Turner for his innovative depictions of nature. (artagora.wordpress.com)
France 1800 - 1900
The depiction of nature reached a critical point with the Impressionists. These artists, emerging in the 1830’s and 40’s, gave visual form to atmospheric effects, and the transient nature of light. However, France, a Catholic nation, held the same values in subject matter as Renaissance Italy. Unlike artists in the Protestant nations of Northern Europe and England, artists in 18th and 19th century France were pressured to include Catholic and Greek figures in their works. This resulted in disapproval and rejection of the Impressionist interest in depicting the natural world.
In 19th century France, individuals hopeful for a career in the arts graduated from the École des Beaux-Arts. The work from these student artists would be presented via official government exhibitions, or the “Salon”. Held annually, officially sponsored exhibitions of the student artists' works were juried by a panel. Under this controlled, academic environment, all works were expected to include the three forms of subject matter whether it be Catholic, Ancient Greece, and Rome or portraiture.
A print from a Salon exhibition highlights these requirements. As one can see, virtually all of the paintings include a representation of these three requirements.
Ancient Greece and Rome, Christian Iconography, Portrait
Artists who garnered approval through this “Academy” system include Jacques Louis David, Alexandre Cabanel, and Jean-Léon Gérôme . Their collective paintings give visual form to these traditional subjects of Ancient Greece and Rome, Catholicism and Portraiture.
The Impressionists
Born in 1840, Claude Monet was not interested in depicting these traditional subjects. His interest in the natural world superseded human figures. Rather than the heroic subjects of his predecessors, Monet carefully observed the atmospheric qualities of light. With this approach, the beauty of his environment became the subject.
Monet’s obsession with the atmosphere is reflected in how he paints the same scene at different times of the day and year. His famous Haystack series, in which he painted 30 times, shows how light reflects differently from summer to winter, morning to dawn. (metmuseum.org)
His contemporaries, Camille Pissarro and Alfred Sisley, held the same interest in atmospheric effects, depicting several landscape scenes.
Vincent van Gogh
Born in the Netherlands in 1853, Vincent van Gogh would eventually spend time with the Impressionists in Paris. Van Gogh’s contact with the Impressionists took place in the 1880’s, and their influence is demonstrated in his painting, Beach at Scheveningen In Stormy Weather, (1882).
The title, scenery and execution of the painting reflect the impressionist approach. With a focus on the atmosphere, rather than a heroic subject, Van Gogh gives texture to the elements of this beach scene. Van Gogh utilizes a range of brushstrokes to texturize the sand, waves and clouds.
Completed eight years after Beach at Scheveningen In Stormy Weather, Van Gogh’s Thatched Cottages at Cordeville, (1890) shows the emergence of his characteristic style. The wavy forms show a more internal, emotional connection with his environment. Whereas the Impressionists carefully studied the precise details of light, Van Gogh's artistic impulses led to a personal depiction of his surroundings.
Wheat Field with Cypresses shows this in a fuller form, and eventually his The Starry Night, reflects a masterpiece of his internal approach. The stars and clouds in rolling, brightly illuminated forms show how the environment affects him visually.
From St Jerome in the forest, to Van Gogh’s The Starry Night, nature’s infinite forms inspired artists across several centuries.
Sources
Landscape and Western Art, Malcolm Andrews, 2000
Leonardo da Vinci's Earth-Shattering Insights about Geology, Jonathan Jones, 2011
Saint Jerome in the Wilderness, c. 1575 / 1585
The Parable of the Sower, Lisa Loraine Baker
Martin Luther as Priest, Heretic, and Outlaw, David B. Morris
Reformation
Turner, Valette, and Lowry – Impressionisms’ Journey to the Working Class, Alice Diamond
https://p2413134.our.dmu.ac.uk/2020/09/28/turner-valette-and-lowry-impressionisms-journey-to-the-working class/#:~:text=Turner%20is%20often%20credited%20as,and%20Speed'%20(1844).
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